Toussaint L'Ouverture - Death, Revolution, and Facts is available on the internet.
Franois-Dominique Toussaint Louverture is also known as Tousaint L'Ouverture.After fighting against the French, Louverture fought against France again for the cause of Haitian independence.Louverture's military and political skills helped transform the slave rebellion into a revolutionary movement.The "Father of Haiti" is now known as Louverture.
There was a slave named Louverture who was born on the French colony of Saint-Domingue.He began his military career as a leader of the 1791 slave rebellion in Saint-Domingue.When the Republican government abolished slavery, Louverture switched his loyalties to the French.Louverture used his political and military power to gain control over the island.
He worked to improve the economy and security of Saint-Domingue.He worried about the economy and restored the plantation system using paid labour, negotiated trade agreements with the United Kingdom and the US, and maintained a large and well-trained army.Although Louverture did not sever ties with France in 1800 after defeating leaders among the Haitian mulatto population, he promulgated an autonomous constitution for the colony in 1801, which named him as Governor-General for Life, even against Napoleon Bonaparte's wishes.[7]
He was arrested upon his arrival after he was invited to a parley by Jean-Baptiste Brunet.He was deported and jailed in France.He died without food or water.The grounds for the Haitian army's final victory were set by the achievements of Louverture.The French withdrew from Saint-Domingue permanently due to the huge losses they had suffered at the hands of the Haitian army.The Haitian Revolution continued under the leadership of Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who declared independence on January 1, 1804.
It is thought that Louverture was born into slavery on the plantation of Bréda in Saint-Domingue in the early 1740s.As records were not kept for slaves, little is known about his early life.Bayon de Libertate, the new overseer, brought Louverture to Bréda in 1772.His name suggests that he was born on All Saints' Day: 1 November.He was probably 50 at the start of the revolution.Louverture may not have known his exact birth date because of the lack of written records.[13]
The nickname Fatras-Bton ('clumsy stick') was given to Louverture in childhood, suggesting he was small and weak.Gaou Guinou is a son of the King of Allada.Pierre Baptiste Simon is usually considered to have been Louverture's godfather, as he was the eldest of their several children.[15]
Pierre Baptiste, a free man who lived and worked on the Bréda plantation, educated Louverture.Historians speculated about Louverture's intellectual background.He has a command of French and Creole in his letters, as well as familiarity with the philosopher who lived as a slave.His life's work shows a familiarity with Machiavelli.Some say that a critic of slavery is an influence.30–6 is the first note.
Jesuit missionaries may have given education to Louverture.He has a familiarity with African or Creole herbal-medical techniques, as well as techniques found in Jesuit-administered hospitals.Legal documents signed on Louverture's behalf suggest that he couldn't write at that time.Secretaries were used to prepare most of his correspondence.Although his spelling in the French language was strictly phonetic, a few surviving documents in his own hand confirm that he could write.[23]
Suzanne Simone Baptiste is thought to have been Louverture's cousin or the daughter of his godfather.He told General Caffarelli at the end of his life that he had fathered sixteen children with multiple women.His three legitimate sons are well known, but not all of his children can be identified for certain.Placide was adopted by Louverture and is thought to have been Suzanne's first child, fathered by a mulatto.His two sons were born to him and Suzanne.[22]:265-7.
Historians thought that Louverture was a slave until the start of the revolution.There is a marriage certificate dated 1777 that shows that he was freed in 1776 at the age of 33.He said in 1797 that he had been free for twenty years.The Bréda plantation appeared to have an important role for him until the revolution.He was initially responsible for the livestock.As a slave-driver, he was charged with organizing the workforce and acting as a coachman to de Libertat.[28]
Louverture began to accumulate wealth as a free man.Legal documents show that he rented a small coffee plantation that was used by a dozen of his own slaves.He said that by the start of the revolution, he had acquired a reasonable fortune and was the owner of slaves at Ennery.The actions of Louverture evoked a collective sense of worry among other European powers and the United States, who feared that the growing slave revolt would cause unrest among their own slaves in the Caribbean and America.30
The free people of color of Saint-Domingue were inspired by the French Revolution to seek an expansion of their rights, while continuing the denial of freedom and rights to the slaves, who made up the majority of population on the island.The slave population didn't get involved in the conflict initially.The start of a major slave rebellion in the north was marked by a Vodou ceremony at Bois Caman.After a few weeks, Louverture sent his family to safety in Santo Domingo and helped the overseers of the plantation leave the island.He was a doctor to the troops.He participated in the leadership of the rebellion, discussed strategy, and negotiated with the Spanish supporters for supplies.[25]
In exchange for a ban on the use of whips, an extra non-working day per week, and the freedom of the rebels, the French Governor agreed to release their white prisoners and return to work.The massacre of Biassou's white prisoners was prevented when the offer was rejected.The prisoners were released and taken to Le Cap.He wanted to present the rebellion's demands to the colonial assembly, but they wouldn't meet.[37]
The Cordon de l'Ouest, a line of posts between rebel and colonial territory, was maintained by Louverture as a leader in the black rebellion.He trained his men in guerrilla tactics and the European style of war.The French first recognised him as a military leader because of the battles he had with the French General tienne Maynaud de Bizefranc de Laveaux.40
He adopted the name Louverture from the French word for opening or the one who opened the way.He did not spell his name with an apostrophe as some modern writers do.His ability to create openings in battle is the most common explanation.The French commissioner's exclamation "That man makes an opening everywhere" is said to be the reason for the name.Some writers think the name referred to a gap between his teeth.[42]
The language of freedom and equality associated with the French Revolution was used by Louverture despite adhering to royalist views.He was willing to bargain for better conditions of slavery in the late 18th century.After an offer of land, privileges, and recognition of the freedom of slave soldiers and their families, Jean-Francois and Biassou formally allied with the Spanish in May 1793.He made covert overtures to General Laveaux but was turned down because his conditions for alliance were not acceptable.The republicans had yet to make a formal offer to the slaves in arms and the conditions for the blacks under the Spanish looked better than that of the French.The blacks wanted to serve under a king and the Spanish king offered his protection in response to the civil commissioners' radical 20 June proclamation.[47]
Perhaps my name has made itself known to you, brothers and friends, I am Toussaint Louverture.I have taken vengeance.St. Domingue should be ruled by Liberty and Equality.I'm trying to make that happen.Fight with us for the same cause, brothers.48
The French commissioner tried to bring the black troops over to his side by proclaiming that all slaves in French Saint-Domingue would be freed on the same day.This failed due to the fact that Louverture and the other leaders knew that Sonthonax was exceeding his authority.[51]
The abolition of slavery was proclaimed by the French government on February 4, 1794.The French general tienne Maynaud de Bizefranc de Laveaux had been in contact with Louverture for months.The Spanish had begun to look with disfavour on his control of a large and strategically important region because of his competition with the other rebel leaders.[52]
The auxiliary force of Louverture was used to great success, with his army responsible for half of all Spanish gains north of the Artibonite in the West in addition to capturing the port town of Gonaves in December 1793.Tensions had arisen between Louverture and the Spanish higher-ups.Juan de Lleonart replaced Matas de Armona, who was disliked by the black auxiliaries.Lleonart didn't support Louverture during his feud with Biassou, who was selling their families as slaves.Unlike Bissaou and Jean-Francois, Louverture did not round up enslaved women and children.Louverture's position in the minds of the Spanish generals was put under scrutiny because of this feud.[55]
The Spanish garrison at Gonaves was attacked by black troops in the name of "the King of the French" on April 29, 1794.Roughly 150 men were killed and the populace was forced to flee.Spanish patrols never returned to the area after the white guardsmen were murdered.It is thought that Louverture was behind the attack.The Spanish commander of the Gonaves garrison noted that his signature was absent from the rebels' ultimatum and that he wrote to the Spanish 5 May protesting his innocence.When he was fighting under the banner of the French, Louverture claimed responsibility for the attack.[57]
The events at Gonaves made Lleonart suspicious.The black general didn't announce his arrival or wait for permission to enter when they met at his camp, instead showing up with 150 armed and mounted men.After accepting an invitation to dinner, Louverture failed to show, and Lleonart found him lacking his usual modesty or submission.Lleonart suspected him of treachery because of the limp that had confined him to his bed during the Gonaves attack.Lleonart was distrustful of the black commander and housed his wife and children while Louverture led an attack on Dondon.[59]
Historians are debating when and why Louverture changed his mind against Spain.According to James, Louverture decided to join the French in June after learning of the emancipation decree.It is argued that Toussaint was indifferent towards black freedom, concerned primarily for his own safety and resentful over his treatment by the Spanish, leading him to officially join the French 4 May 1794 when he raised the republican flag over Gonaves.Ott sees Louverture as both a power-seeker and sincere abolitionist who was working with Laveaux since January 1794.[62]
After emancipation was proclaimed, Louverture claimed that he had switched sides.According to a letter from Toussaint to General Laveaux, he was already fighting for the French by 18 May 1794.[63]
The Cordon de l'Ouest was eradicated by Louverture in the first weeks.He was attacked from multiple sides.The slaves in the rebellion were against him.As a French commander, he was faced with British troops who had landed on Saint-Domingue in September, as the British hoped to take advantage of the ongoing instability and to capture the prosperous island.He was able to pool his 4,000 men with Laveaux's troops.His brother Paul, his nephew Mose, and Jean-Jacques Dessalines were included in his officers by now.[67]
The Spanish threat to French Saint-Domingue was ended by Louverture.The Treaty of Basel of July 1795 ended hostilities between the two countries.The fight against Louverture continued until November when Biassou and Jean-Franois left for Spain and Florida.Most of their men joined Louverture's forces.The British were unable to oust Louverture from Saint-Marc.guerilla tactics were used to contain them.69
In 1795 and 1796, Louverture was concerned with re-establishing agriculture and exports, as well as keeping the peace in areas under his control.He said that the long-term freedom of the people of Saint-Domingue depended on the colony's economic viability.He used a mixture of diplomacy and force to return the field hands to the plantations as emancipated and paid workers.Workers staged small rebellions, protesting poor working conditions, their lack of real freedom, and their fear of a return to slavery.They wanted to work for themselves instead of on plantations.72
There were concerns about managing potential rivals for power within the French part of the colony.The mulatto commander was based in Cap-Franais.The command of some sections of troops and territory had been fought over by Villate and Louverture.After overthrowing French General tienne Laveaux, Villatte was thought to be racist towards black soldiers and planned to ally with a free man of colour.Villate drummed up popular support by accusing the French authorities of trying to return to slavery.
He appointed himself Governor after capturing the French Governor Laveaux.Louverture's troops arrived at Cap-Franais to rescue the governor and drive Villatte out of town.The public was able to see that the warehouses were empty of chains that residents feared would be used to return to slavery.He was appointed as Saint-Domingue's top-ranking officer in 1797, two months after he was promoted to commander of the West Province.Laveaux proclaimed Louverture as Lieutenant Governor at the same time that he would do nothing without his approval.75
After the Villate insurrection, France's representatives of the third commission arrived in Saint-Domingue.The commissioner who had previously declared abolition of slavery was among them.The relationship between the two men was positive at first.The school for the children of colonials was established in France and Sonthonax arranged for his two sons to attend it.[78]
The French national assembly had elections in September of 1796.According to Louverture's letters, he encouraged Laveaux to stand, and historians have speculated as to whether he was trying to remove a rival from power or place a firm supporter in France.He was either elected at Louverture's instigation or on his own initiative.Laveaux left Saint-Domingue in October.[80]
Sonthonax, a fervent revolutionary and fierce supporter of racial equality, soon rivalled Louverture in popularity.There were several points of conflict between them.They disagreed about accepting the return of the white planters who fled Saint-Domingue.They were considered potential counter-revolutionaries because they had fled the French Revolution and were forbidden to return.They were bearers of useful skills and knowledge and he wanted them back.[83]
Bayon de Libertat, the ex-overseers of Bréda, was allowed to return by Louverture in 1797.Louverture was threatened with prosecution and ordered to get Bayon off the island.Louverture wrote to the French Directoire in order to get permission for Bayon to stay.He began arranging for Sonthonax's return to France a few weeks later.There were several reasons for Louverture to want to get rid of Sonthonax, one of which was that he had been involved in a plan to make Saint-Domingue independent.Historians have differing opinions as to how credible the accusation is.[86]
Sonthonax accused Louverture of royalist, counter-revolutionary, and pro-independence tendencies.The French government might suspect Louverture of seeking independence because he had asserted his authority to such an extent.The French Directoire government was less revolutionary than it had been.There were suspicions that the abolition of slavery might be reconsidered.In 1797, Louverture wrote to the Directoire, assuring them of his loyalty, but reminding them that abolition must be maintained.[94]
For months, Louverture was in sole control of French Saint-Domingue, except for a semi-autonomous state in the south.The British's position on Saint-Domingue was getting weaker.France's latest commissioner, Gabriel Hédouville, arrived in March 1798 with orders to undermine his authority as Louverture was negotiating their withdrawal.[94]
The withdrawal of British troops from western Saint-Domingue in exchange for a general amnesty for the French counter-revolutionaries was signed by Louverture on 30 April 1798.In May, Port-au-Prince was returned to French rule.95
In July, the two men met the commissioner.Wanting to create a rivalry that would diminish Louverture's power, he displayed a strong preference for Rigaud.General Maitland was playing on French rivalries and was not allowed to deal with Louverture directly.Two treaties were signed in August to evacuate the remaining British troops.They signed a secret treaty that lifted the British blockade on Saint-Domingue in exchange for a promise that Louverture wouldn't try to cause unrest in British colonies in the West Indies.[98]
An uprising began among the troops of his nephew, who was adopted by Louverture.Efforts by Hédouville to manage the situation made matters worse.As the rebellion grew to a full-scale insurrection, Hédouville prepared to leave the island, while Louverture and Dessalines threatened to arrest him as a troublemaker.In 1798, he sailed for France to transfer his authority to Rigaud.The third commission member who was posted to the Spanish parts of the colony, Phillipe Roume, was chosen by Louverture to work with.Although Louverture continued to protest his loyalty to the French government, he had expelled a second government representative from the territory and was about to negotiate another agreement with one of France's enemies.[101]
In 1798, the United States suspended trade with France because of the issue of privateering.The trade between Saint-Domingue and the United States was desirable to both countries.Joseph Bunel was sent by Louverture to negotiate with the Adams administration.The terms of the treaty were similar to those already established with the British, but Louverture refused to declare independence.As long as France continued to abolish slavery, he was content to have the colony remain French.[101]
The tension between Louverture and Rigaud came to a head.According to Louverture, Rigaud tried to assassinate him to gain power over Saint-Domingue.Louverture was accused of conspiring with the British to restore slavery.Tensions between full blacks and mulattoes were complicated by race.Louverture only wanted to prevent a landing of French troops if he could control every port.[107]
Roume was persuaded by Louverture to declare Rigaud a traitor after he sent troops to seize the border towns.The War of Knives lasted more than a year after the defeated Rigaud fled to Guadeloupe.Louverture delegated most of the campaign to his lieutenant, who became notorious for massacring mulatto captives and civilians.The number of deaths is disputed by the contemporary French general Franois Joseph Pamphile de Lacroix and the twentieth-century Trinidadian historian C.L.R.James said there were only a few hundred deaths.112
The colonies would be subject to special laws after Napoleon Bonaparte gained power in France.Although the colonies suspected the re-introduction of slavery, Napoleon began by promising to maintain abolition.Louverture was forbidden to invade Spanish Santo Domingo, an action that would put him in a powerful defensive position.Roume was coerced into giving the necessary permission by Louverture.[118]
The Mose invaded the Spanish territory in January 1802, taking possession of it from the governor.The area was less developed than the French section.It was brought under French law to abolish slavery and begin a program of modernization.He was in control of the entire island.[118]
Napoleon told the inhabitants of Saint-Domingue that France would draw up a new constitution for its colonies and that they would be subject to special laws.The former slaves feared that he might restore slavery despite his protestations to the contrary.white planters were appointed to draft a constitution for Saint-Domingue.His authority over the entire island of Hispaniola was officially established on July 7, 1802, when he promulgated the Constitution.It gave him the power to choose his successor and made him governor-general for the rest of his life.Louverture acknowledged that Saint-Domingue was a single colony of the French Empire.There can't be slaves in Saint-Domingue, according to article 3 of the constitution.All men are free and French.The constitution guaranteed equal opportunity and equal treatment under the law for all races, but it also confirmed Louverture's policies of forced labour and the importation of workers through the slave trade.Vodou, the dominant faith among former slaves, was not negotiable.The Roman faith is the only publicly professed faith.[122]
The task of delivering the constitution to Napoleon was assigned to a Colonel who personally opposed it.Provisions for French government officials, lack of trade advantages, and Louverture's breech of protocol in publishing the constitution were all damaging to France.Despite his disapproval,Vincent tried to submit the constitution to Napoleon but was exiled to the Mediterranean island of Elba for his pains.Notes 3 and 123 are included.
Louverture tried to convince Bonaparte of his loyalty.He wrote to Napoleon, but didn't hear back.Napoleon decided to send 20,000 men to Saint-Domingue to restore French authority and possibly restore slavery as well.Napoleon was able to plan this operation without fear of the Royal Navy intercepting his ships because France had signed a temporary truce with Great Britain in the Treaty of Amiens.
Napoleon's troops were ordered to seize control of the island by diplomatic means, proclaiming peaceful intentions, and keeping secret his orders to deport all black officers.Louverture was ensuring discipline and preparing for defense.The rebellion against forced labor was led by his nephew and top general, Mose.When the French ships arrived, not all of Saint-Domingue supported Louverture.In late January 1802, Leclerc tried to land at Cap-Franais but was held back byChristophe, who attacked Fort-Liberté.The city of Cap will only be entered after it has been reduced to ashes.I will fight you even after these ashes.
In case of war, Louverture's plan was to burn the coastal cities and as much of the plains as possible, retreat with his troops into the mountains, and wait for yellow fever to decimate the French.Difficulty in internal communications was the biggest impediment to this plan.Cap-Franais was burned and retreated, but Louver Paulture was tricked by a false letter into allowing the French to occupy Santo Domingo.Some officers tried to resist instead of burning and retreating.[131]
Leclerc tried to return to the diplomatic solution after both sides were shocked by the initial fighting.The sons and their tutor were sent from France to accompany the expedition and present Napoleon's declaration to Louverture.After the talks broke down, months of fighting followed.
This ended whenChristophe switched sides in order to retain his generalship in the French military.Shortly afterwards, General Jean-Jacques Dessalines did the same thing.On 6 May 1802, Louverture rode into Cap-Franais and negotiated an acknowledgement of Leclerc's authority for him and his generals.He retired to his plantation after ending hostilities.[133]
Several authors, including the son of Louverture, claim that Jean-Jacques Dessalines was at least partially responsible for his father's arrest.After learning that Louverture had failed to instruct a local rebel leader to lay down his arms, he immediately wrote to Leclerc to condemn his conduct.Jean Baptiste Brunet gave gifts to Dessalines and his spouse.[134]
Leclerc asked Dessalines to arrest Louverture, but he didn't.Accounts differ as to how Jean Baptiste Brunet accomplished this.One version said that Brunet pretended that he was going to settle in Saint-Domingue and was asking Louverture's advice about plantation management.The memoirs of Louverture suggest that Brunet's troops had been provocative.Either way, Brunet described himself as a "sincere friend" in a letter that Louverture had.Embarrassed by his deception, Brunet didn't show up for the arrest.[135]
According to Brunet, he suspected the former leader of an uprising and deported him and his aides to France.The rebels would not repeat the mistake of overthrowing Toussaint Louverture, he warned them.[136]
On 2 July 1802, the ships reached France and on 25 August, Louverture was imprisoned at Fort-de-Joux.Louverture wrote a memoir during this time.He died in prison on April 7, 1803.exhaustion, malnutrition, apoplexy, pneumonia, and possibly Tuberculosis are suggested causes of death.[140]
Louverture was known as a Roman Catholic.In the War of the Knives, Rigature consolidated his power by decreeing a new constitution for the colony.Catholicism was established as the official religion.Vodou was practiced on Saint-Domingue in combination with Catholicism, but little is known about the relationship between it and Louverture.He discouraged it as ruler of Saint-Domingue.[141]
Historians think he was a member of the Masonic Lodge of Saint-Domingue based on his Masonic symbol in his signature.Several free blacks and white men are close to him.His membership is unlikely due to his status as a Catholic, since the papal ban on Catholics holding membership in Masonic organizations went into effect in 1738.[143]
Two-thirds of the men who died in the Haitian rebellion died when Napoleon withdrew his forces.There is a citation needed.